When Arthur Schopenhauer was strolling through the streets with his faithful poodle, he gazed upon the world with a profound melancholy. To him, the human condition and the plight of all sentient beings were a tale of relentless suffering in a world where they had no say in their existence. From the moment of birth, their journey was marred by diseases, heartaches, betrayals, the inevitability of aging, and the ultimate embrace of death. Even when he witnessed a bird savoring a worm, he couldn’t help but imagine that the agony of being consumed far exceeded the joy of the feast, reinforcing his grim belief that the pain of life far outweighed its fleeting pleasures.
Schopenhauer’s contemplation of the overwhelming misery and suffering that pervaded the world led him to a somber conclusion: it would be better if the Earth were devoid of life, frozen in a crystalline state akin to the lifelessness of the Moon. He fully acknowledged that his philosophy was devoid of comfort, refusing to sugarcoat the harsh realities of existence. In his eyes, life was a ceaseless pursuit, an unending struggle to satisfy desires and needs that perpetually emerged. Unsurprisingly, his perspective earned him the labels of ‘pessimist’ and ‘dark philosopher,’ but his observations were deeply rooted in profound insights into the nature of reality, particularly his conception of an all-encompassing force underlying our suffering, which he termed the Will, or the Will-to-Live.
Despite the vastness of human suffering he recognized, Schopenhauer’s solitary life was dedicated to extensive writing. His works have transcended time, influencing subsequent philosophers such as Nietzsche and Freud. Schopenhauer’s writings resonate with many not for their uplifting positivity but rather for their unflinching portrayal of life’s harsh truths, often hidden beneath the veneer of denial.
The Life and Background of Arthur Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer, a German philosopher born in 1788 and passing away in 1860, hailed from a prosperous family of merchants. He came into this world in the city of Danzig, then a part of the Kingdom of Prussia but now known as Gdansk, Poland. His early life was marked by the loss of his father and a complex relationship with his domineering mother, Johanna Schopenhauer, who aspired for her son to pursue a commercial career that clashed with Arthur’s intellectual interests and introspective nature.
Philosophically, Schopenhauer’s interests were eclectic, drawing inspiration from Eastern philosophies such as Buddhism and Hinduism, particularly texts like the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Theravada Buddhist scriptures—a rather uncommon fascination during his era. Additionally, he was influenced by the ideas of Plato, Aristotle, and Spinoza. His academic journey through the University of Göttingen and later the University of Berlin acquainted him with the works of Kant, which left an indelible mark on his intellectual development. In 1818, he published “The World as Will and Representation” (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung), a magnum opus that laid the foundation for his philosophical system, positing that reality was fundamentally driven by an irrational and blind force—the “Will.”
The Concept of the Will
Central to Schopenhauer’s unique philosophy is the concept of the Will. He proposed that this incessant and insatiable force, represented by the human will, propels beings to relentlessly pursue their needs and desires. Paradoxically, Schopenhauer contended that this ceaseless desire, embodied by the human will, inevitably led to pain and unhappiness.
During his lifetime, Schopenhauer’s philosophy diverged from the prevailing philosophical currents of his time, receiving limited attention. Nevertheless, his ideas would later shape the thoughts of renowned intellectuals like Friedrich Nietzsche, Richard Wagner, Leo Tolstoy, Sigmund Freud, and Albert Einstein.
Schopenhauer’s literary legacy extends beyond his seminal work, encompassing “Essays and Aphorisms,” a collection that explores diverse topics in an accessible manner and has served as the basis for compilations like “Studies in Pessimism” and “The Wisdom of Life.” His “The Art of Being Right” delves into various methods for winning debates. Additional works, including “On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason,” “On Vision and Colors,” “On the Will in Nature,” “On the Freedom of the Will,” and “On the Basis of Morality,” delve into ethics and moral philosophy. Today, Schopenhauer’s work continues to provoke thought and debate.
Unveiling the Will-to-Live
Schopenhauer’s philosophical inquiry delved deep into the nature of existence. Drawing inspiration from Eastern philosophies, particularly Hindu and Buddhist thought, he embarked on a quest to uncover the fundamental force behind the phenomena of the universe. What impels a stone to be a stone, a mountain to be a mountain, or a star to be a star? What causes human existence, and what underlies the relentless striving and desires that define it? His relentless exploration led to the conception of the Will-to-Live—an irrational, unconscious, yet potent force.
The Will-to-Live occupies a central position in Schopenhauer’s philosophical framework. To grasp his pessimistic outlook on life, one must acquaint themselves with this concept. The Will permeates all facets of existence, from inanimate objects to plants, animals, and human beings. Even the existence of a seemingly lifeless stone is underpinned by the Will, as it compels objects to maintain their inherent natures. Similarly, the Will exerts its influence on animals and humans, propelling them to come into being and act according to its dictates. The Will defies control or reason, operating autonomously and beyond conscious manipulation.
Human beings find themselves utterly subject to this irrational force, their actions and desires driven by the inexorable Will. It encompasses the drive for self-preservation as well as the pursuit of improved future circumstances, status, and prestige. While we might attempt to rationalize our desires, the Will-to-Live operates beyond the realm of reason. It propels animals to procreate without the need for rationale, fostering a natural inclination toward propagation.
From Schopenhauer’s perspective, human behavior serves as a testament to our collective enslavement to this irrational force. Most of us, he observed, are mere followers of its lead. The Will-to-Live, in Schopenhauer’s estimation, stands as the primary reason why life is fraught with suffering, an idea we shall explore in greater depth later in this article. Crucially, Schopenhauer distinguished between the Will and the intellect, viewing them as distinct entities operating independently.
The Illusory Nature of Perception
Contemplating the world around us, Schopenhauer questioned the veracity of our perceptions. Do we truly perceive the “things in themselves,” or do we merely engage with representations of reality? He posited that the objects we encounter are perceptual constructs, products of our cognitive faculties. Our senses, intellect, and individual knowledge shape these representations, forming our unique perspectives of the world.
In Schopenhauer’s philosophical framework, two realms coexist: the “noumenal world” and the “phenomenal world.” The noumenal world represents reality as it truly is, while the phenomenal world represents the world as we perceive it. However, our capacity for perception limits us to the phenomenal realm, rendering the noumenal inaccessible. Consequently, we cannot behold reality as it is; instead, we comprehend and interact with the world through the prism of our representations. These representations encompass concepts, categories, and other mental structures that both shape our understanding of reality and constrain us from perceiving it in its unadulterated form.
For Schopenhauer, the Will-to-Live, the force previously discussed, lies at the foundation of our representations. The Will exerts a profound influence on our interpretation and perception of the universe, filtering our observations through its lens. Our inherent desires and needs directly impact how we perceive the world. The genuine world, Schopenhauer contended, is a pure expression of the Will, hidden from our direct perception. This state is analogous to the lines of code in the Matrix, underlying all activity but concealed from those ensnared within it, as their perception is restricted to the system’s predefined boundaries.
Consequently, the Will itself remains invisible; we can only perceive its effects within the phenomenal world. Schopenhauer’s observations led him to conclude that these effects are nothing short of dreadful. As he eloquently put it, if we attempt to fathom the extent of misery, pain, and suffering that the sun shines upon in its course, we might agree that life would be far better if, like the Moon, the Earth’s surface remained in a crystalline state.
Life’s Inherent Dissatisfaction
Schopenhauer’s perspective on life painted a picture of inherent dissatisfaction, a ceaseless struggle against irrational forces both within and around us. According to him, human existence was marked by an inescapable discontentment, a never-ending battle with irrational impulses and persistent adversity.
The presence of the Will renders us insatiable, driving us to pursue desires endlessly. Once one desire is fulfilled, another promptly takes its place, setting in motion a ceaseless cycle of longing and disappointment, with no lasting respite from our discontent. Schopenhauer argued that our fleeting moments of pleasure paled in comparison to the enduring misery and suffering that punctuated our lives. Intriguingly, he contended that, contrary to our common beliefs, ‘pleasure’ constituted a negative experience, while ‘pain’ was positive.
Schopenhauer articulated his perspective, stating that every state of well-being, every feeling of satisfaction, was inherently negative, defined by freedom from pain—the positive element of existence. Thus, ‘pleasure’ was characterized as a negative experience, a mere cessation of the positive ‘pain.’
While pleasures were transient and often superficial, pain possessed greater intensity and left lasting imprints on our psyche. It was an overpowering and undeniable emotion that imposed itself upon us with tremendous force. The example he provided in his introductory remarks perfectly illustrated his viewpoint: the fleeting joy of eating paled in comparison to the excruciating agony of being devoured.
The Illusion of Desire and the Multiplicity of Suffering
Schopenhauer’s analysis went beyond the intensity of pain versus pleasure; he probed into the multiplicity of suffering afflicting humanity. A typical human endured physical ailments, heartbreak, loss, betrayal, and the unrelenting march of time, culminating in old age and death. Schopenhauer likened the experience of youth to the anticipation of a theatrical performance. In youth, we sat with great expectations, enthralled by the unknown possibilities life held.
However, as life unfolded, the harsh reality of existence slowly unraveled our youthful optimism. He poignantly articulated this sentiment: when two old friends, separated by a lifetime, reunite in their later years, their primary emotion is one of profound disappointment in life as a whole. Their thoughts return to the time when life seemed brimming with promise, bathed in the rosy glow of dawn, offering so much and delivering so little.
Schopenhauer’s fascination with the sufferings of the world went beyond mere observation; he actively sought solutions to alleviate the pain of existence. One of his primary recommendations was asceticism, a path characterized by sensory restraint and the renunciation of external pleasures—a deliberate denial of the Will. However, Schopenhauer conceded that asceticism might not be suitable for everyone.
As an alternative, he proposed a pragmatic approach for the average individual to make life more bearable. Schopenhauer emphasized that our emotional state held greater importance than societal status or fame. Pursuing simple pleasures that were easily attainable, rather than striving for difficult-to-reach and expensive ones, was his counsel. He viewed intellectual pleasures as a wise choice, as they remained accessible even in old age. Moreover, Schopenhauer encouraged a disregard for the opinions of others, asserting that excessive concern for the respect and affection of others underpinned much of life’s troubles.
The Value of Health and Rational Choices
Health, Schopenhauer argued, played a pivotal role in determining our overall well-being. Thus, he posited that health was more valuable than fame or wealth. In his view, a healthy poor person likely experienced greater happiness than a sick, wealthy individual. Schopenhauer urged individuals to make informed choices, carefully evaluating whether their decisions would reduce or increase their suffering.
Yet, despite these proposed solutions, Schopenhauer remained steadfast in his belief that life, on the whole, was marked by dread, as its sufferings far eclipsed its pleasures. Life, according to his perspective, was a relentless journey toward increasing suffering—a trajectory that might be summarized as, “It is bad today, and it will be worse tomorrow, and so on until the worst of all.”
In conclusion, Arthur Schopenhauer’s philosophy offers a somber reflection on the human condition and the inherent suffering that accompanies existence. He scrutinized the nature of desire, the illusory nature of perception, and the relentless pursuit of satisfaction. While his outlook on life may appear pessimistic, Schopenhauer’s writings continue to provoke thought and reflection, challenging us to confront the complexities of our own existence.