Framing
Framing is a technique that has the power to shape perception, influence decisions, and alter outcomes. The simplest way to grasp it is through a comparison of two statements:
- “Hey, the trashcan is full!”
- “It would be really great if you could empty the trash, honey.”
On the surface, the information in both statements is identical — the trash needs to be emptied. Yet, the way it is phrased can create vastly different emotional responses and actions. This subtle shift in perspective is the essence of framing. It is not the content of the message, but how it is delivered that makes all the difference.
In psychology, framing refers to how information is presented, influencing how it is interpreted and acted upon. It’s a technique that plays a central role in shaping behaviors, judgments, and perceptions. How something is framed can trigger positive or negative reactions, pushing individuals to act in different ways, even when faced with the same scenario.
The Power of Reframing: Kahneman and Tversky’s Groundbreaking Study
The experiment conducted by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in the 1980s provided an eye-opening insight into the way people make decisions based on how information is framed. The scenario they presented involved a hypothetical epidemic in which 600 lives were at stake. The researchers asked participants to choose between two options for an epidemic-control strategy. Despite the outcomes of the two options being mathematically identical, the way each was framed led participants to make very different decisions.
The First Framing: A Bird in the Hand
In the first framing, the choices were presented as follows: Option A would “save 200 lives,” while Option B offered a “33% chance that all 600 people would survive, and a 66% chance that no one would survive.” On the surface, both options involved saving 200 lives. However, Option A highlighted the certainty of saving 200 lives, while Option B presented a risky probability with both a chance of saving everyone or no one at all. Most respondents, when presented with these choices, opted for Option A. The certainty of saving 200 lives appealed to a natural preference for guaranteed outcomes, even when the riskier option (B) had the same expected value.
This decision-making process can be explained through the psychological principle of loss aversion. Humans tend to fear losses more than they value gains. The certainty of saving lives in Option A appeared more secure, while the uncertainty of Option B evoked the potential for catastrophic failure. The reaction was emotional, not rational — reflecting how people generally prefer the known to the unknown, even when both offer equal expected outcomes.
The Second Framing: The Language of Death
The researchers then rephrased the two options in terms of death rather than survival: Option A was now framed as “400 people will die,” while Option B was reworded to “33% chance that no one will die, and 66% chance that all 600 people will die.” This framing focused on the loss of life, shifting from a focus on survival to death.
This subtle change in language had a dramatic impact. When framed as death, people became more willing to take risks. The framing of 400 deaths in Option A appeared far more stark and severe than the potential for a large number of deaths in Option B. As a result, many participants switched their preference to Option B, which they saw as less extreme in terms of finality, despite it being mathematically identical to the original framing. The response reflected the way framing around loss and survival sways people toward risk-taking, revealing that how information is presented — whether focusing on survival or death — can completely change the way people make decisions.
The Subtle Influence of Language: Fat-Free or 1% Fat?
Marketing and consumer psychology provide some of the most vivid examples of framing in action. In food advertising, the way a product is described can have a significant impact on how consumers perceive it — often in ways that are not entirely reflective of the product’s actual qualities.
Perception Over Content
Consider the marketing of a piece of meat labeled “99% fat-free” versus “1% fat.” In terms of actual nutritional content, both pieces of meat are identical — they contain the same amount of fat. Yet when the product is described as “99% fat-free,” it is seen as healthier, leaner, and more desirable. The language taps into the consumer’s desire for healthy, low-fat foods and frames the meat as a better choice. On the other hand, labeling it “1% fat” invokes the presence of fat, and that small percentage becomes more psychologically significant than it actually is.
The phrase “99% fat-free” evokes an image of a clean, healthy product with little to no guilt attached. It provides a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment for the consumer, who believes they are making a healthier choice. The framing here capitalizes on the psychology of perceived value, where the focus on what the product “lacks” (fat) rather than what it contains is more appealing to health-conscious individuals.
The Power of ‘Free’ and ‘Fat’
The word “free” is powerful. It implies that something is being removed or avoided, which triggers positive associations. By focusing on the absence of fat, it gives the product a health halo, even though fat content is only a small part of the overall nutritional profile. The focus shifts from what is in the product (fat) to what is absent (free of fat), leveraging the consumer’s cognitive bias toward avoiding negative attributes.
The same concept applies when consumers are presented with a choice between “98% fat-free” and “1% fat” labels. In this case, despite the second product being slightly better in terms of fat content, people overwhelmingly chose the “98% fat-free” product. The phrasing directs attention to a perceived health benefit (being “free” of fat), even though it does not provide a tangible improvement in nutritional value. This is an example of how subtle framing can lead people to make decisions based on perception rather than the actual content of the product.
This type of manipulation is effective because it plays on ingrained biases, which guide consumers to base their decisions on how something is framed rather than its true qualities. Consumers who focus on the “99% fat-free” label are more likely to feel good about their choice, even if the product’s actual benefits are marginal.
Glossing: The Art of Reframing Reality
Glossing is a form of reframing used in both corporate and political language to make negative events or facts appear more palatable. In business, government, and media, it is often employed to soften the impact of unpleasant realities by choosing words that convey less severity, turning difficult situations into more manageable ones.
From ‘Loss’ to ‘Correction’
One of the most common uses of glossing in business is the rewording of financial downturns. When a company’s stock price drops, it is often referred to as a “market correction” rather than a loss. A correction suggests that the decline is temporary, part of a normal market cycle, and will soon be followed by recovery. This language frames the situation as a short-term fluctuation rather than a lasting negative trend, which can mitigate the emotional impact for investors, employees, and the public.
A financial loss framed as a correction carries less weight than the blunt term “loss.” It reduces panic, reassures stakeholders, and minimizes the urgency of taking corrective actions. By reframing the event in a more neutral or positive light, the company can avoid triggering negative emotional responses that might lead to hasty decisions or panic-driven reactions.
From ‘Layoffs’ to ‘Restructuring’
Similarly, corporate layoffs are often rebranded as “restructuring” or “rightsizing.” This glossing helps to soften the harsh reality of job cuts by suggesting that the company is reorganizing for efficiency or long-term growth. The term “restructuring” implies that the layoffs are part of a strategic decision to improve the company rather than a consequence of poor performance or financial instability.
This use of glossing is especially important in protecting a company’s image. While layoffs are often seen as a negative indicator of financial trouble, reframing them as part of a broader restructuring effort can make the decision seem more rational, less emotional, and more acceptable to the workforce and the public. It helps redirect attention away from the layoffs themselves and shifts the focus to the company’s future prospects.
Politicians and War: Glossing the Uncomfortable
In political language, glossing is used to reframe events like war or violence to make them appear less distressing or more justifiable. Terms like “ethnic cleansing” are often used in place of “genocide,” a term with far stronger emotional and moral connotations. The phrase “ethnic cleansing” may invoke an image of a cleaner, less violent process, thus diluting the brutal reality of mass murder and violence.
Glossing can also be used to reframe military actions. A military strike, no matter how devastating, may be framed as a “humanitarian intervention” or a “peacekeeping mission,” suggesting that the purpose of the attack was to protect people or restore order rather than to inflict harm. The use of these terms can influence public opinion, shifting it from outrage to support or indifference, even in cases of significant loss of life.
In both business and politics, glossing is a powerful tool for controlling perception. By selecting words that downplay the negative impact of certain actions, organizations and governments can protect their image and maintain support from stakeholders, even in the face of controversy.
Framing in Commerce: The Psychology of Sales
Framing is a critical tool in sales and marketing, shaping consumer decisions in ways that they may not consciously recognize. The way a product is framed can determine whether it is seen as a worthwhile investment or an overpriced option. One of the most common uses of framing in commerce is in the presentation of features that make a product seem more appealing than it might be in reality.
Focusing on Mileage and Tyres
Consider the case of selling a used car. Salespeople often highlight features such as “low mileage” or “good tyres,” even though these elements are only a small part of the overall vehicle’s condition. By emphasizing these attributes, the salesperson frames the car as a great deal, pushing the buyer’s attention away from other, potentially less attractive aspects of the car, such as the engine condition, the state of the brakes, or the cleanliness of the interior.
This selective framing works because consumers are naturally drawn to tangible factors they can easily assess. Mileage is a clear, measurable figure that potential buyers can understand, and “good tyres” is a visible feature that provides immediate reassurance. Meanwhile, less obvious but crucial aspects of the car’s condition are downplayed or ignored altogether. This use of framing leads to a narrower decision-making process, where buyers focus only on the features presented to them, potentially overlooking more critical flaws.
Why Framing Works: Cognitive Biases at Play
This effect is enhanced by cognitive biases like the availability heuristic, where people make judgments based on the most readily available information. In the case of a used car, the mileage and tyres are often more immediately apparent than more technical factors like engine health or brake wear. Framing the car in terms of these more accessible features makes them more likely to influence the decision, even though they may not be the most important factors for the buyer’s long-term satisfaction.
Reframing in Marketing: The Power of Focus
Marketers have long understood the power of framing and focus in influencing consumer behavior. By directing attention to specific features of a product or service, they can guide potential customers toward making particular decisions. For instance, a company selling a new phone might highlight the battery life, while downplaying the camera quality, even if both are equally important to the consumer. The framing here shifts the consumer’s focus, nudging them to prioritize one feature over another based on the way it is presented.
In commercial transactions, framing doesn’t just guide decision-making; it also shapes the consumer’s perception of value. A product can be positioned as more desirable by highlighting certain benefits or features, even if it may not necessarily be the best option. This framing effect has made its way into virtually every aspect of marketing and advertising, from product descriptions to commercials, where subtle cues can influence how consumers interpret and evaluate products.
The Role of Framing in Storytelling
In literature and entertainment, framing plays a pivotal role in how stories unfold and how characters are perceived. Authors, filmmakers, and other creators use framing to control the pacing, build suspense, and direct the audience’s emotional responses. Without framing, stories would lack the intrigue and complexity that keep audiences engaged from start to finish.
Building Suspense: The Mystery of the Crime Novel
In a crime novel, for instance, the murder is typically not revealed in the opening chapters. Instead, the author frames the story by providing clues, introducing red herrings, and withholding key details. This slow revelation keeps the reader guessing, creating suspense and ensuring that the story maintains its emotional impact.
By framing the crime as a mystery, the author heightens the emotional stakes, encouraging readers to invest in solving the puzzle alongside the protagonist. The framing of time, character relationships, and narrative structure build the tension that is key to keeping readers engaged. The outcome — the resolution of the crime — only carries weight because of the way the story has been framed to make it seem like an elusive, high-stakes challenge.
Manipulating the Reader’s Perception
Framing also plays a critical role in shaping how readers view characters. A protagonist may be framed as a hero in one chapter, only to be framed as a villain in the next, depending on the situation or the point of view from which the story is told. This shifting perspective forces the reader to reevaluate their understanding of the character, deepening the narrative and engaging the reader’s emotions on a deeper level.
The framing of emotions is just as powerful. For example, a character may experience loss or failure, but how these moments are framed determines whether they are seen as a tragic downfall or an opportunity for growth. This framing shapes the moral and emotional tone of the story, influencing how the audience feels about the character’s journey.
Framing Emotions and Themes
Ultimately, framing gives authors the power to direct the reader’s emotional experience. Whether a moment is framed as tragic or uplifting or presented as a moment of despair or hope determines how the audience will feel. The framing of each event shapes the overall themes of the story and the emotional responses it evokes.
The Ubiquity of Framing: A Universal Influence
Framing isn’t limited to marketing, literature, or business; it is an essential tool in everyday communication. From casual conversations to global media coverage, framing is everywhere. How information is presented — the words chosen, the emphasis placed, and the context provided — shapes how messages are understood and interpreted.
Framing in Everyday Life
We use framing daily to influence how others perceive situations and decisions. When asking someone to do something, we can frame the request in ways that make it seem more urgent, appealing, or reasonable. For instance, instead of saying, “The trash is full,” one could frame the request as “It would be great if you could empty the trash when you have a moment.” This simple change in phrasing can make the request feel more polite and less like a demand.
In everyday conversations, framing helps us achieve specific outcomes. When telling a story or recounting an event, we can highlight certain aspects and downplay others, shaping how others perceive what happened. By framing an event positively, we can make it seem more favorable, even if the reality is more complex.
Framing in the Media and News
The media plays a central role in shaping public opinion, and one of the key tools at its disposal is framing. Whether it’s a political scandal, an international crisis, or a local news story, how the story is framed influences how people perceive it. Journalists and news outlets frame stories by choosing which aspects to emphasize and which to downplay. A political protest, for example, can be framed as a “peaceful demonstration” or as “violent unrest,” depending on the angle the media outlet wishes to promote.
The framing of a news story shapes public opinion. A tragic event framed as “senseless violence” might provoke outrage and calls for action, while the same event framed as a “tragic misunderstanding” may elicit sympathy and understanding. Media framing is not just about providing facts but about creating a narrative that guides how people think and feel about the reported events.
In both personal and public life, framing shapes our reality. It influences the way we present ourselves, interpret the news, and engage with the world. By recognizing this influence, we can become more discerning consumers of information, more mindful communicators, and better equipped to navigate the complexities of the world around us.
Conclusion
Framing is a powerful tool that shapes our perception and decision-making. It influences how we interpret information, guides our choices, and even molds our beliefs. By understanding the pervasive nature of framing and developing awareness of its effects, we can become more discerning information consumers. Let us embrace a mindset that questions frames, seeks alternative perspectives, and strives for a more comprehensive understanding of the world.
This article is part of The Art of Thinking Clearly Series based on Rolf Dobelli’s book.