When we meet someone for the first time or evaluate something new, we often form an immediate judgment. This is not merely a coincidence; our brains are wired to give special weight to the initial and final pieces of information we encounter. These cognitive phenomena, the primacy and recency effects, influence everything from hiring decisions to personal relationships. But how do they work, and how can we avoid falling victim to them? Let’s dive deeper into these two psychological biases and explore how they shape our perception of the world.

The Primacy Effect: The First Impression’s Lasting Impact

The primacy effect refers to the psychological phenomenon where we tend to give more weight to the first pieces of information we receive, making them more memorable and influential in our overall judgment. It plays a critical role in shaping first impressions, which are incredibly important because they often set the tone for how we view everything that follows. For example, when we meet someone new, we immediately notice their appearance, tone of voice, and body language, and these initial observations become the foundation of our evaluation. The first impressions are disproportionately powerful, whether it’s the first few seconds of an interview or a brief encounter with a new acquaintance.

In the example of Alan and Ben, the description of Alan’s traits begins with “smart” and “hard-working,” two characteristics that are socially valued and seen as positive. On the other hand, Ben’s description starts with “jealous” and “stubborn,” which are more negative traits. This ordering impacts how we perceive them, even though the qualities listed for both individuals are the same. The primacy effect shows that we tend to remember and prioritize the first items in a list or the first impressions of a person, which in turn shapes our subsequent judgments. We could have easily switched the order of adjectives in both descriptions, but our brains, working on autopilot, immediately latch on to the first terms we encounter.

This effect extends far beyond initial meetings. The design of our environments, such as the strategic use of first impressions in branding or marketing, relies heavily on the primacy effect. For instance, the entrance of a luxury hotel or the design of a high-end retail store is intended to create a lasting, positive first impression. If the first few moments of an experience are impressive, the subsequent experience can still feel satisfactory, even if less remarkable. Without the primacy effect, these elaborate efforts in branding and marketing would lose their effectiveness.

Daniel Kahneman, a Nobel-winning psychologist, shares a personal anecdote from his time as a professor. He would grade exams in the typical way: one student’s paper after another. However, he noticed that students who answered the first questions tended to shape his perception of the rest of their work well. As a result, their later answers, regardless of quality, were viewed more favorably. This was a clear example of how the primacy effect can unconsciously affect objective assessments. Kahneman’s solution to counteracting this bias was to grade answers in batches by question rather than by student, thus neutralizing the influence of the initial impression. This example highlights the subtlety of the primacy effect and its ability to affect our decision-making processes, even when we are trying to be objective.

The primacy effect is often linked to how we form opinions and judgments about people in various social and professional settings. It’s why someone’s physical appearance or the first words they speak can impact how we perceive their competence, trustworthiness, or likability. Whether in a job interview, a social gathering, or a professional meeting, we are constantly influenced by the first impression someone makes.

The Recency Effect: The Influence of the Last Impression

While the primacy effect governs how we respond to the first piece of information, the recency effect suggests that the last piece of information we receive will also strongly influence our judgment. This cognitive bias explains why the final impression we are left with, whether from a presentation, meeting, or conversation, often lingers in our memory more powerfully than what came before. The recency effect is based on the limited capacity of our short-term memory, which can only hold so much information at once. When new data is added, it displaces older pieces, making the most recent information the most prominent.

In a typical scenario, you may remember the last part of a presentation or speech more vividly than its opening. This is because the recent information you receive has the freshest impact on your memory. Consider the experience of attending a lecture or a meeting where a final statement or a closing argument sticks with you long after the event has ended. Despite everything discussed, the last information dominates, influencing how you recall the entire event.

For example, imagine you’re attending an interview with a candidate for a job. During the first half of the interview, the candidate is slightly nervous, fumbling through their answers. However, in the final moments, the candidate delivers a clear, confident response that resonates with you. Despite their earlier performance, you might remember the last impression more than the initial discomfort, which could ultimately influence how you evaluate their overall suitability for the position. The recency effect helps explain why these last moments often sway our final judgments.

The recency effect is especially noticeable when information is presented in a sequence. If you were to rank a series of products based on your experience with each, the product you tried last will likely stand out more than the ones you tried earlier, even if all of the products were of similar quality. This is why the recency effect is crucial in situations involving multiple interactions or evaluations, such as performance reviews, interviews, or even customer service interactions. The most recent experience often overshadows all that came before, leaving a lasting impact on the final judgment.

However, the recency effect isn’t limited to evaluations that happen in quick succession. It also plays a key role in long-term memory. When reflecting on an experience, you may find that your recall is most accurate when focusing on the last events or moments, whether positive or negative. The recency effect essentially helps to consolidate your final memory of an event, which is why the conclusion or final message in a communication often has the most lasting impact.

How Primacy and Recency Effects Interact in Decision-Making

Understanding the interplay between the primacy and recency effects is key to making more informed and balanced decisions. These cognitive biases interact with each other to shape our overall perception of events, people, and situations. The primacy effect tends to dominate when we are forced to make quick decisions based on first impressions. In contrast, the recency effect takes precedence when there is a longer period of time between the introduction of information and the final decision. The relationship between these two effects can be seen as a tug-of-war in decision-making processes, where the first and last impressions exert influence.

The primacy effect will likely be stronger when making a snap judgment—such as a first meeting with someone or a quick product evaluation. In these situations, the first impression holds more weight and can often determine how we feel about something or someone. This is why the initial moments of a job interview, a social interaction, or even a sales pitch can be crucial. How the conversation begins—whether the speaker is confident, articulate, or engaging—can shape our perception of them for the rest of the interaction.

However, when there is a gap in time between the presentation of information and the decision-making moment, the recency effect becomes more pronounced. For example, if you’re reviewing a series of interviews, the last candidate’s performance may stand out more than the first, even though both candidates were equally qualified. Similarly, suppose you’re evaluating a product after spending several hours comparing different options. In that case, the last product you tested may remain in your memory as the most favorable, even if the others were comparable in quality.

These effects play a significant role in group decision-making as well. In a meeting or committee, the first person to speak will often set the tone for the entire discussion, leading others to follow suit or be influenced by their opinion. This is a direct consequence of the primacy effect, where the first idea or argument presented holds disproportionate weight. However, in larger group discussions, the recency effect also shapes the final decision. The last argument, point, or opinion voiced can have the most lasting impact on the group’s judgment.

By recognizing when each effect is at play, you can adjust your approach to decision-making to counteract their influence. For example, if you are part of a group discussion, consider speaking later to avoid being unduly influenced by the first opinions shared. On the other hand, if you want to make a lasting impression, make sure your point comes at the end of the conversation when the recency effect is most likely to favor your argument.

Practical Applications: How to Counteract the Biases

Primacy and recency effects may be powerful cognitive biases, but we can counteract their influence and make more balanced decisions by being aware of them. One effective strategy is to deliberately slow down the decision-making process. Rather than forming an opinion based on a single encounter or piece of information, allow yourself time to process the entire experience. This allows you to assess all aspects of the situation, from the first to the last impression, ensuring that no part is unduly emphasized.

In interviews, for instance, one way to avoid the sway of first or last impressions is to take notes throughout the conversation. Rather than letting the beginning or end of the interview dominate your memory, jot down your thoughts periodically—every five minutes, for example. By the time the interview is over, you will have a more balanced record of your impressions, which you can use to evaluate more objectively. This practice helps to neutralize the primacy and recency effects, ensuring that you assess the person as a whole rather than being influenced by the extremes.

When leading a meeting or discussion, consider randomizing the participants’ speaking order. This prevents the first person to speak from unduly influencing the group and ensures that everyone has an equal opportunity to present their ideas. This simple tactic helps mitigate the primacy effect and allows for a more democratic decision-making process.

Lastly, always evaluate the middle portion of any interaction or experience. While it’s easy to focus on the first and last moments—those most strongly influenced by the primacy and recency effects—the middle portion can often provide valuable insights that are just as important. By consciously considering all aspects of a situation, you can develop a more accurate and fair evaluation.

By understanding and accounting for the primacy and recency effects, you can enhance your decision-making, avoid biases, and ensure that your judgments are more objective and reflect the entire experience.

Conclusion: Avoid Over-Reliance on First and Last Impressions

When evaluating people or situations, it’s crucial to remember that the initial and final impressions are often the most influential. However, this doesn’t mean they should be the sole basis for decision-making. By understanding the primacy and recency effects, you can work toward more objective evaluations and avoid letting these cognitive biases cloud your judgment.

In conclusion, the first and last impressions we form tend to dominate our thinking, while the middle can be easily overlooked. This insight into human cognition can help us make better decisions by encouraging a more thorough and balanced evaluation process. Whether hiring a new employee, making a business decision, or simply evaluating a new relationship, try to step back from the initial rush of judgment. Assess all aspects impartially, and you’ll find that the middle—often the most telling—matters just as much as the beginning and end.

This article is part of The Art of Thinking Clearly Series based on Rolf Dobelli’s book.