In a previous article, we explored the origins of World War I, where both sides found themselves locked in a brutal and exhausting stalemate. With no decisive victories in sight, the war would soon evolve into a protracted struggle of attrition. The aim? To wear down the enemy. It wasn’t about gaining territory but about outlasting the opponent. The Allies, with their vast empires and colonies, had a significant advantage in resources. The British, in particular, implemented a naval blockade, denying Germany access to critical supplies, including food. Yet, despite this, neither side was willing to face a drawn-out war. Both needed to find a way to break the deadlock, to gain an upper hand that could bring the war to a swift and decisive end.
Expanding the Battlefield: New Frontiers
As the First World War stalemated in Europe, both the Central Powers and the Allies sought ways to break the deadlock. The traditional battlefronts were entrenched in a seemingly endless struggle of trench warfare, and so new strategies were needed to shift the momentum. A key tactic was to open new frontiers in regions far removed from the bloody fields of Europe. The Allies, in particular, were well-positioned to do so, with vast empires stretching across continents, and they quickly shifted their attention to the colonies.
Australia, eager to prove its loyalty to Britain, was among the first to take action. The Australian forces quickly seized German New Guinea in the Pacific, marking the beginning of Allied colonial conquests. Similarly, Britain and France targeted Germany’s colonies in Africa, particularly in German East Africa, a region that would later become infamous for its brutal colonial history. In Africa, the war had a devastating impact on the local population, as both sides relied heavily on African soldiers and porters. The recruitment of native African men led to immense loss of life, as they were often treated as expendable and subjected to horrific conditions.
In the Pacific, Japan, a rapidly expanding imperial power, seized several of Germany’s colonies, including the German-controlled islands of Micronesia and the Mariana Islands. The Japanese were motivated by a desire to expand their empire and position themselves as a dominant force in East Asia. By taking these islands, Japan not only removed Germany’s influence in the region but also secured important naval bases that would later become crucial during the Pacific campaigns of World War II.
Meanwhile, Italy, which had initially been aligned with the Central Powers, switched sides after being promised territorial rewards by the Allies. Italy’s involvement on the side of the Allies created a new front in the mountains of northern Italy, where they faced off against Austro-Hungarian forces. However, despite their new alliance, Italy found itself embroiled in a long, drawn-out campaign, much like the other fronts. The difficult terrain, coupled with a lack of decisive breakthroughs, left Italy stuck in a war of attrition, contributing little to the overall outcome of the conflict.
The entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war was a turning point for the Central Powers. The Ottomans, weary from years of conflict with their Balkan neighbors, hesitated at first to join the war. However, internal divisions and the desire to reclaim lost territories pushed the Ottoman leadership into action. They aligned with the Central Powers, but their efforts to seize control of key territories, such as the Suez Canal and Russian territories in the Caucasus, were disastrous. The lack of preparation, poor leadership, and brutal weather conditions led to significant losses, especially during their failed attempts to take the Suez Canal from the British.
A War of Atrocities: Chemical Weapons and Submarine Warfare
As the war dragged on and both sides realized the hopelessness of achieving a quick victory, they resorted to increasingly brutal and inhumane tactics. One of the most significant developments during this period was the use of chemical weapons. Prior to the war, the rules of warfare had been somewhat civilized, with international conventions against the use of chemical agents. But the horrors of trench warfare, the relentless stalemate, and the mounting pressure for breakthroughs led to the abandonment of these principles.
The Germans, who had long been pioneers in military innovation, were the first to introduce chemical warfare on a large scale. In April 1915, they used chlorine gas during the Second Battle of Ypres, marking the first large-scale use of chemical weapons in modern warfare. The gas, which formed a dense, yellow-green cloud, would suffocate those who inhaled it and cause severe damage to the lungs. The first wave of casualties included French, British, and Canadian soldiers who were unprepared for this new form of warfare. The Germans followed up with the use of phosgene gas, which was more potent than chlorine and caused horrific injuries, often leading to death within hours.
The use of chemical weapons rapidly escalated, with both the Central Powers and the Allies employing different forms of toxic agents to inflict maximum damage. The Allies developed mustard gas, which could cause severe skin burns, blindness, and long-term respiratory problems. Mustard gas was particularly cruel because it lingered in the environment, contaminating the soil and water and rendering areas uninhabitable long after the battle had ended. As a result, both sides suffered from the long-term effects of chemical warfare, leading to widespread psychological trauma and a growing sense of horror among soldiers.
Meanwhile, naval warfare evolved as well. The Germans, unable to compete with the British Royal Navy in conventional surface combat, turned to the submarine. The German U-boat campaign aimed to cut off Britain’s supply lines by sinking merchant ships, including those carrying vital resources and food. The most famous of these attacks was the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in May 1915, which resulted in the deaths of nearly 1,200 people, including 159 Americans. This act of aggression prompted outrage from the United States, which had been neutral up until that point. While Germany argued that the Lusitania was carrying munitions and was thus a legitimate target, the loss of civilian life shifted public opinion, particularly in the United States, and brought the country closer to entering the war.
The Allies responded to the threat of U-boats by developing anti-submarine tactics and technologies, including depth charges and sonar, which helped to neutralize the effectiveness of German submarines over time. However, the German U-boat campaign continued to inflict significant damage on Allied shipping, further escalating the brutality of the conflict.
The Struggle in the Balkans: The Addition of Bulgaria
In the Balkans, the war’s complex web of alliances and rivalries added to the bloodshed. Serbia, which had been a key player in the outbreak of the war, was under intense pressure from the Central Powers. In response to Serbia’s resistance and the growing threat from Austria-Hungary, the Central Powers sought assistance from Bulgaria, a nation still recovering from its defeat in the Second Balkan War. Bulgaria, eager to expand its territory and recover losses from previous conflicts, was persuaded to join the Central Powers in exchange for promises of land and power.
Bulgaria’s entry into the war was a significant turning point in the Balkans. With Bulgarian help, the Central Powers were able to launch a successful offensive against Serbia, which had been fighting a two-front war against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The Serbian army, already weakened by years of fighting, was forced to retreat through Albania. This retreat, however, was not without complications, as Albania, though neutral, had ties to Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary took advantage of this and invaded Albania under the pretense of assisting in the pursuit of retreating Serbian forces.
In a cruel twist of fate, many Serbian soldiers managed to escape by sea, but the Central Powers’ campaign effectively neutralized Serbia for the time being. The involvement of Bulgaria in the war brought additional instability to the already volatile region, and its occupation of Serbian and Greek territories deepened animosities that would persist for years to come.
Verdun and the Somme: The Horror of Trench Warfare
The year 1916 was marked by two of the most brutal and costly battles of the entire war: the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme. Both of these engagements would come to symbolize the horrors of trench warfare—unrelenting, bloody, and seemingly without end.
The Battle of Verdun, fought from February to December 1916, was one of the longest and most grueling battles in history. The Germans, hoping to break French morale, launched an attack on the heavily fortified city of Verdun, which had symbolic importance to the French. The French, determined to hold Verdun at all costs, mounted a fierce defense, leading to months of intense fighting. The Germans hoped that by bleeding the French dry, they could force them into submission, but the French resistance was unwavering.
By the end of the battle, more than 300,000 soldiers had been killed or wounded, with the city itself largely destroyed. The battle was a symbol of the determination and suffering of the French soldiers, who refused to yield to the enemy. The war of attrition at Verdun was a microcosm of the larger conflict, where both sides endured immense losses without achieving significant territorial gains.
Meanwhile, on the Western Front, the British launched the Battle of the Somme in an attempt to relieve pressure on the French and to draw German forces away from Verdun. The Battle of the Somme is infamous for its staggering casualties, with the first day alone seeing 60,000 British casualties—an unprecedented loss that shocked the world. The battle, which lasted until November, saw a massive artillery barrage followed by infantry assaults on well-entrenched German positions. However, the tactics used were outdated and ineffective, resulting in heavy losses and minimal territorial gain.
Despite the failure of early assaults, the battle did mark the first use of tanks on the battlefield, a new technology that would eventually revolutionize modern warfare. Though the tanks were not yet fully developed, they showed the potential for armored vehicles to break through entrenched positions, a lesson that would become crucial in later conflicts.
The Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme became symbols of the futility and devastation of trench warfare, highlighting the human cost of the conflict. Both sides endured unimaginable suffering, and the war’s outcome seemed increasingly uncertain as soldiers on both sides were sacrificed in the name of limited territorial gains.
The Eastern Front: The Collapse of Russia
The Eastern Front of World War I was characterized by vast open spaces, shifting frontlines, and a constantly changing landscape. While the Western Front was locked in a stalemate, the Eastern Front was more fluid, with large movements of armies and dramatic changes in territory. Russia, a massive empire with a poorly equipped and ill-trained army, struggled to keep pace with the war’s demands.
In the early years of the war, the Russian army initially made gains against the Central Powers, particularly against Austria-Hungary. However, the Russians struggled with logistics, supply shortages, and poor leadership, which hampered their ability to maintain their momentum. As the war continued, the Russian army began to falter, and Central Powers forces pushed the Russians back. By 1917, the Russian military was on the brink of collapse.
The situation in Russia worsened as political instability and social unrest took hold. The Russian people, weary from years of war, famine, and economic hardship, began to revolt. In February 1917, protests erupted in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg), leading to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the collapse of the Russian monarchy. A provisional government was established, but it lacked the support of the people and struggled to maintain control.
By October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in a revolution that pulled Russia out of the war. The signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty in March 1918 formally ended Russia’s participation in World War I, allowing the Central Powers to shift their focus entirely to the Western Front. The withdrawal of Russia, though a victory for Germany, would ultimately come back to haunt them, as it set the stage for the arrival of American troops on the battlefield.
The United States Enters the War
As Russia withdrew from the war, the Allies were left fighting against the full might of the Central Powers. However, the entry of the United States into the war in 1917 changed the course of the conflict. The United States had been providing material support to the Allies throughout the war, but its government had remained officially neutral. This neutrality was increasingly difficult to maintain, particularly as Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare campaign escalated.
The sinking of the Lusitania, a British passenger ship with American citizens aboard, in 1915, had already strained relations between the United States and Germany. However, it was the interception of the Zimmermann Telegram in 1917 that finally tipped the scales. In the telegram, Germany promised Mexico territorial gains in exchange for joining the war against the United States. The British intercepted the message and shared it with the U.S., which caused an outcry. In April 1917, the United States declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of its direct involvement in the conflict.
The entry of the United States provided a significant boost to the beleaguered Allied forces. American troops, fresh and well-equipped, began arriving in Europe in large numbers, bolstering the ranks of the French and British armies. The sheer manpower of the United States was a game-changer, and the arrival of American soldiers in Europe gave the Allies a much-needed advantage in their battle against the Central Powers.
The Germans, who had been struggling to break the stalemate, now faced the prospect of fighting not only the French and British but also the powerful United States. Realizing that time was running out, the Germans launched a final series of offensives in the spring of 1918, hoping to break the Allies before American reinforcements could tip the scales decisively.
The Collapse of the Central Powers
By the fall of 1918, the Central Powers were on the brink of collapse. Despite their desperate efforts, they were unable to stem the tide of Allied advances. Bulgaria was the first to give in, signing an armistice with the Allies in September 1918. This was followed by the Ottoman Empire, which surrendered shortly thereafter. Austria-Hungary, struggling with internal unrest and military defeats, also sought peace. The empire fractured, with its constituent nations breaking away, further weakening its position.
Germany, the last holdout of the Central Powers, was exhausted and facing a relentless push from the Allies. On November 11, 1918, at 11 a.m., Germany signed an armistice, bringing an end to the fighting. The peace treaty that followed, the Treaty of Versailles, imposed harsh terms on Germany, including war guilt, reparations, and territorial losses.
The collapse of the Central Powers marked the end of the war, but it also set the stage for future conflicts. The Treaty of Versailles, though intended to secure lasting peace, sowed the seeds of resentment and anger, particularly in Germany. The war had devastated Europe, leaving millions dead, cities in ruins, and entire societies on the brink of collapse. Yet, as history would later show, the world had not learned all of its lessons. The peace that followed would be fragile and short-lived, and within two decades, the world would be plunged into another, even deadlier conflict.
Conclusion
The conclusion of World War I marked the end of a devastating conflict that reshaped the world in profound ways. The war had been a brutal contest of attrition, fought on multiple fronts, with staggering casualties and a staggering toll on both soldiers and civilians. The complex web of alliances, shifting loyalties, and desperate strategies to break the stalemate led to new horrors in warfare, from chemical weapons to unrestricted submarine warfare.
While the Central Powers collapsed under the weight of exhaustion, economic turmoil, and strategic miscalculations, the entry of the United States into the war proved to be a pivotal turning point for the Allies. Yet, despite the eventual Allied victory, the peace that followed was fragile. The Treaty of Versailles, rather than offering lasting stability, sowed the seeds for future conflicts, setting the stage for the rise of extremism and the outbreak of World War II just two decades later.
World War I left the world scarred, and its lessons, though harsh, should remind us of the high cost of war. The consequences of the war, both in terms of human suffering and geopolitical shifts, would echo for generations. While the world had hoped that the horrors of the war would never be repeated, history would show that the peace forged in its aftermath was far from permanent.